Hxaro

Abstract

Abstract taken from Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol 38 [?], no 11 [?], p. 6797-A:

Finally, three characteristics of social organization that are common to most hunter-gatherer societies are seen as the result of a system for risk reduction that hinges on distributing risk over the population through ties of mutual reciprocity. In order to put the San example into a broader perspective these are discussed both in relation to other hunter-gatherer societies today as well as those in the past

Before testing these hypotheses on data from the !Kung San, a description of risk inherent in the San social and natural environment is given to demonstrate that there is a need for risk reduction in most aspects of traditional San life, and that the recent effects of change have altered the configuration of risk, but not reduced it. To distribute this risk over the population, the !Kung San create social ties of mutual obligations through hxaro, a more or less balanced, delayed exchange in which the flow of goods gives information about the status of the relationship underlying hxaro - one of mutual access to goods and resources (but not services) on the basis of need and ability to fill it. Risk is distributed over the population through each San's choice of a set of about fifteen hxaro partners who are well-distributed according to abilities, location, age and sex. This set of hxaro partners is altered according to the needs of all partners at various stages of life. The goods exchanged pass on a flexible hxaro chain through the hands of several members of one camp to a partner in another camp, and so on, creating a sense of obligation not only to direct hxaro partners, but to others several links in either direction down the chain. In this way obligation is extended beyond two hxaro partners to their members of their respective groups

The effect of the San system of risk reduction on group structure is then seen in the light of ten years of data on changes in San group composition. San social groups are seen as being formed primarily around two opposing forces of risk - those of variation in personal ability to meet subsistence requirements on a daily basis and those due to environmental and demographic fluctuations. It is argued that in a society where direct organization around production is minimal, the size of groups will correspond to the size of the populations necessary to absorb critical risks. Three major social groups formed around the reduction of risk are discussed for the !Kung San [as?] are their corresponding spatial and material correlates. Because the extended visit to make use of resources of other groups is so central to San security, is such a regular part of San life, it gives a deceiving impression of instability in these San groups. However, when seen over a period of ten years, San groups are rather stable except for adjustments made to absorb imbalances caused by demographic fluctuations in a small population